BY LTC Dale W. Dahlke (OH)
PART ONE: CHEMICAL WARFARE
Previous articles in the SGAUS Journal have given overviews of the threat of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD). In this and the following articles, I will try to explain the how, why, what and where of the NBC Threat.
CHEMICAL AGENTS
Chemical agents are classified as nerve, blister, blood, choking and incapacitating (non-lethal such as tear gas). Two terms must be discussed before proceeding, persistent and non-persistent. They refer to the length of time that the agent will last in a field environment. The more persistent that an agent is, the longer it will remain and will necessitate future decontamination and the wearing of protective equipment in that area. A non-persistent agent has a short life span, but is usually a more lethal agent.
NERVE AGENTS
Nerve agents work to interfere with the transmission of the message from the nerve to the organ. The nerve is normal, the transmission to the organ, muscle or gland is faulty. The organ, muscle or gland gets the wrong message and does the wrong thing, or causes too mush activity in the muscles, glands, or organs.
Exposure reactions to vapors of liquid are a running nose, drooling, and dimness of vision, difficulty in breathing, nausea, sweating, vomiting, jerking or twitching, involuntary urination/defecation, coma and death.
The antidote for Nerve Agent Poisoning is the US Army NAAK (Nerve Agent Antidote Kit) which is two injectors, the first is Atropine and the second is 2PAMCL. Up to three sets of injections can be given to a seriously injured individual within 30 minutes.
For decontamination the following items are used. M291 Kit, M256A1 Kit, also bleach, soap and water.
Protection for all types of Nerve Agents are the complete overgarment, mask, gloves and overboots. One must also keep in mind that after a 30-minute exposure to a nerve agent that the military overgarment will emit the agent's vapors. Depending upon the type of overgarment the length of the protection varies. The OD overgarment is good for 8 hours in a field concentration, the Battledress Overgarment style is good for 12 hours, and the new (JSLIST) Joint Service Integrated Suit Technology Overgarment is durable up to 45 days, it can be washed up to three times and resists deterioration from fuel and lubricants.
NERVE AGENT TYPES
GA (TABUN) is a brownish to colorless liquid that emits a colorless, odorless vapor. It enters the body primarily through the respiratory tract, but it is also highly toxic through the skin and digestive tract. It is 20 times more persistent than GB, but it is not stable in storage. GA is generally rated as a non-persistent agent (10 min to 24 hours).
GB (SARIN) is a colorless, odorless liquid. In the impure form it may have a slightly fruity odor (like Juicy Fruit gum). GB is a quick acting casualty agent and is rated as non-persistent (10 min-24 hr) agent.
GD (SOMAN) is a clear, colorless liquid that gives off a colorless vapor, it also has a slight camphor odor. GD is the most poisonous of all of the G-agents. With the addition of a thickening agent, its persistency and hazard is increased. The usual thickened form of GD is designated TGD.
GF is a slightly volatile liquid that is insoluble in water. It has the odor of peaches.
VX is an odorless, colorless liquid, which with a thickener is amber colored similar in appearance to motor oil. Casualties are produced by inhalation (seconds to minutes) and/or by absorption (2 hours). It is usually rated as a persistent agent (2 days to 1 week).
Nerve agent Detection Equipment for liquids only, M8 and M9 paper. For vapors and aerosols, M18A2 Kit, M256A1 Kit, the M272 Water Test Kit is used to monitor water. For vapor only the Chemical Agent Monitor (CAM), ICAM, ICAM-APD, ICAD, M90DIA, M8A1 and M22 Automatic Chemical Agent Alarms, MM-1 (Mobile Mass Spectrometry Gas Chromatograph) used on the FOX Chemical Reconn Vehicle, M21 Remote Sensing Chemical Agent Alarm (RSCAAL), M27 Automatic Chemical Agent Alarm (ACADA) and the Joint Service Lightweight Standoff Chemical Agent Detector (JSLSCAD).
BLISTER AGENTS
Blister Agents quickly penetrate the skin, eyes and airways. It changes the substance which reacts with enzymes, proteins and DNA. It causes cell death.
Exposure results in redness of the skin, blisters, irritation of the eyes, cough, shortness of breath and death in higher concentrations.
Decontamination is the only antidote for blister agent poisoning. Decontamination varies slightly depending on the type of blister agent. M258A1 kit, m391 Kit, diluted hydrochloriter, and /or soap and water are the decontamination items that are used. When decontaminating, make sure not to break open any blisters that develop. The liquid will not contain agent but will cause problems in healing.
Protection is the same as Nerve Agent, complete overgarment, mask, gloves and overboots.
H (Levinstein Mustard/Impure Sulfur Mustard) is a mustard produced by the Levinstein process. It contains 30% sulfur impurities, which gives it a pronounced odor of mustard or garlic. As a vapor, it is usually heavier than air. The sulfur impurities lessen its effectiveness and depress the freezing points by 2 to 3 degrees. H is rated as a persistent agent (Hours to weeks).
HD (Distilled Mustard) is a colorless to pale yellow liquid with a garlic like odor. HD is a persistent agent (3 days to weeks) and it is also a delayed action agent. The first symptoms appear within 4 to 6 hours of contamination. HD acts as a cell irritant and then cell poison.
HL (Mustard-lewisite) is a mixture that provides a low-freezing mixture for cold weather operation, or high altitude spraying. Mixtures are either 63% L and 37% HD by weight, or 50/50 by weight.
L (Lewisite) is a dark oily liquid with a variable odor (mostly like geraniums). It is rated as a persistent agent (1 to 3 days). Lewisite is a cell poison like HD, but skin burns will be much deeper. When inhaled in high concentrations, it is usually fatal within 10 minutes.
CX (Phosgene Oxime) may appear as a colorless crystalline solid or liquid. It is a quick acting agent which causes immediate pain. An irritating odor is an indicator of the presence of this agent. The area exposed to CX becomes blanched in 30 seconds and wheals form within 30 minutes. CX is rated as a non-persistent agent.
BLOOD AGENTS
Blood Agents poisons the cell (stops the use of oxygen), the cell cannot use the oxygen remaining in the blood (the blood stays red). Exposure leads to dizziness, nausea, weakness, loss of consciousness, convulsions, breathing stops and death.
The antidote for blood agents is Amylnitrate. Since blood agents only through the respiratory system, a gas mask in the only protection needed, and decontamination is not needed.
Blood agents are rated as non-persistent.
BLOOD AGENT TYPES
AC (Hydrogen Cyanide) is a colorless, highly volatile liquid. It is soluble and stable in water. It has a faint odor, like peach kernels or bitter almonds, and sometimes cannot be detected even in lethal concentrations. AC is less persistent than other blood agents (1-10 minutes).
CK (Cyanogen Chloride) is a colorless, highly volatile liquid. Although only slightly soluble in water, it dissolves readily in organic solvents. Its vapor, heavier than air, is very irritating to the eyes and mucous membrane surfaces. CK's pungent biting odor is masked by its irritating properties. Normally CK is a non-persistent (1-10 minutes) agent. It is a quick acting casualty agent. CK causes degradation of canister and filter elements in protective masks; this makes an individual vulnerable to subsequent lethal agent attacks.
Choking agents cause damage to the membranes in the lungs that separate the air sac from the capillary. Exposure results in shortness of breath, coughing. If the concentration is high, the individual will die from drowning in the fluids that build up in the lungs.
Like Blood Agents, a mask is the only protection needed, and no decontamination is necessary.
There is no antidote for choking agents. First aid is to make the individual as comfortable as possible.
CHOKING AGENT TYPES
CG (Phosgene) is a colorless gas; it has the odor of new-mown hay, grass or green corn. It is a non-persistent agent. In WW I, more than 80% of the chemical agent casualties were caused by CG.
DP (Diphosgene) is also a colorless gas with the odor of new-mown hay. It is also a non-persistent agent.
CL (Chlorine) is a non-persistent agent that has the odor of bleach. It is widely used today as an industrial cleaner.
RELATIVE LETHALITY
Using Chlorine (CL) gas as base line (commercial chemical).
Cyanogen (CK) is twice as toxic
Phosgene (CG) is 6 times more toxic
Hydrogen Cyanide (AC) is 7 times more toxic
Mustard (H) is 13 times more toxic
Sarin (GB) is 200 times more toxic
VX is 600 times more toxic
PROBLEMS IN DISPERSION AND PERSISTENCY
Weather is a key factor in the employment of chemical agents. High winds increase the rate of evaporation of the agents. Air moving over irregular surfaces, buildings etc. sets up eddies, or turbulence that tend to disperse a chemical cloud. An increase in air temperature with an increase in height is known as an inversion (stable) condition. This condition usually exists on a partially clear night when the middle and low clouds cover less than 30% of the sky and on early mornings until about 1 hour after sunrise, when the wind speed is less than 5 knots.
Over large bodies of water, weak inversion conditions tend to last during the day. This is the ideal condition for chemical agent deployment.
A lapse temperature gradient is a decrease in air temperature with an increase in height. This normally exists on clear or partially clear days. It is characterized by turbulence and thermal air currents, and it is the least favorable condition for the employment of chemical agents. Over large bodies of water, weak lapse conditions prevail at night.
A neutral temperature gradient usually exists on heavily overcast days or nights, 1 to 2 hours before sunset or 1 to 2 hours after sunrise. It may also exist when the wind speed exceeds more than 5 knots. Periods of precipitation normally accompany a neutral condition.
Rain, mist, fog and snow tend to dissipate chemical agents.
PROBLEMS FACED BY THE TERRORIST WITH CHEMICAL AGENT USE
There are as many problems, if not more that the terrorist will have in manufacturing, and releasing chemical agents, as we will have in defending against it. Manufacturing of military strength chemical weapons grade material is not the drop-kick that many of the news media have made it. Military doctrine of deployment of chemical weapons (no first use by the US) is taken into account, multiple releases, with extremely concentrated agents shows that this would be a major effort.
Granted someone could "cook-up" a chemical agent in his/her home lab, would it be the quantity needed in volume and lethal strength.
Considering that the Japanese Aum Shinrikyo Sect had millions of dollars, plus chemists, labs and all of the raw materials that are needed, they failed to produce a product that although referred to as SARIN, was not the equivalent of military weapons grade GB. One has to realize that a chemical attack in an enclosed subway system using a nerve agent, referred to as SARIN nerve gas, that killed only 12 people and injured 5000 cannot be claimed as being a success. If weapons grade GB had been released, the total would have been more like 5000 dead and 12 injured plus 100s of responders, dead and injured.
It has been reported also that the Aum Shinrikyo Sect had made a total of 20 attacks before the subway one, 10 biological and 10 chemical, without anything becoming evident that any attack had been made.
I am not expounding that the threat is not there, with the countries like Iraq, Iran, Libya, North Korea, China, and some of the ex-Soviet Union countries having the capabilities of supplying to individuals or groups, Weapons of Mass Destruction.
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PART TWO: BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS
In this second article we will cover the subject of Biological Weapons and the possibility of terrorist uses.
The World Health Organization in 1972 published a report that estimated, 50 kilograms (110 lbs) of aerosolized B, anthrax's spores, dispersed by a line source 2 kilometers (1 ¼ mile) up wind of a population center of 500,000 unprotected people in ideal meteorological conditions, would travel 20 kilometers (12 miles) down wind and kill up to 220,000 people.
DEFINITIONS
The terms and definitions of biological warfare is key to understanding how to react to a biological attack.
BIOLOGICAL WARFARE _ the deliberate spreading of disease amongst humans, animals, and plants.
BIOLOGICAL AGENT-a micro-organism, or toxin derived from a microorganism, which causes disease in man, plants, or animals.
BACTERIA _ are small free-living organisms, which reproduce by division. The diseases they produce often respond to antibiotics.
VIRUSES _ are organisms that require living cells to replicate. Their stability is extremely variable. The diseases they produce do not usually respond to antibiotics, but may respond to antiviral compounds.
RICKETTSIAE _ are microorganisms that have characteristics of both bacteria and viruses. They are usually susceptible to antibiotics.
CHLAMYDIA _ are intracellular parasites incapable of generating their own energy source, Like bacteria, they respond to antibiotics. Like viruses, they need living cells for multiplication.
FUNGI _ are primitive plants that do not use photosynthesis, and are capable of anaerobic growth, draw nutrition from decaying vegetable matter. Most fungi form spores. Diseases may respond to antimicrobiatic drugs.
INCUBATION PERIOD _ the time between exposure, and the appearance of symptoms.
INFECTIVITY _ the ease which microorganisms, establish themselves in a host species. Pathogens with a high infectivity cause disease with few organisms, while those with a low infectivity require a larger number to cause disease.
LETHALITY _ the ease that an agent causes death.
STABILITY _ the length of time an organism will remain effective in the environment.
TRANSMIBILITY _ the ability of an infectious agent to spread from a source to a person. Mechanisms of transmission are: indirect (vector), and direct (droplet, dust).
VIRULENCE _ the degree of an infectious agent, indicated by case fatality rates and/or its ability to invade and damage tissues of the host.
PATHOGENS _ living organisms that cause disease.
TOXINS _ poisonous by-products from pathogens, that can be manufactured. They have
a relatively simple biochemical composition and are not able to reproduce themselves. In
many aspects, they are comparable to chemical agents.
NEUROTOXINS _ toxins that mimic nerve agent symptoms.
CYTOTOXINS _ toxins that affects blood and can also mimic blister agent symptoms.
VECTORS _ carriers of biological agents such as fleas, rats, insects, etc.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS
As far back as the 16th century BC, the Assyrians poisoned wells using a toxic fungus found on the rye plant. In 1346 a plague broke out in the Tartar Army that was besieging the city of Kaffa (in the Ukraine). The Tartars hurled bodies of the plague victims over the city walls. Some historians believe that some of the people escaped from the city and were the ones that were the catalyst that started the "Black Death" plague in Western Europe. In 1710 the Russians used the same tactic against Sweden.
In the 15th century, Pizarro gave infected clothing to South American Indians. During the French and Indian War in the 16th century, the English gave smallpox infected blankets to the Indians that were supporting the French.
During WW I, German agents infected horses and cattle with Glanders, in the US before they were shipped to France. From 1937 to 1945, Japan operated what was known as "Unit 721" in Harbin, Manchuria with its mission to develop biological agent that could be turned into weapons. They developed Anthrax and Plague "bombs". The Plague "bomb" was ceramic, and broke on impact releasing plague infected fleas.
The US began its research in 1943, into biological agents. In 1969, President Nixon issued an Executive Order stopping all offensive biological and toxin weapons research and production. Between May 71 and May 72, all US stockpiles and munitions were destroyed.
The Biological and Medical Defense Program that was started in 1953, is the only remaining part of the earlier BW program that still continues. It is known as the US Army Medical Research Institute for Infectious Disease (USAMRIID).
In 1972, the US and many other countries signed the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Biological and Toxin Weapons. Both Russia and Iraq were signers of the BWC. They continued and are continuing to do research and development of biological and toxin weapons. In 1979, Russia had an accidental release of anthrax in the city of Sverdlovsk (for those that remember the U2 shoot down), which caused over 800 deaths and numerous injuries. Also in 1979, a Bulgarian exile was assassinated in London, England by the use of Ricin, a toxin from the castor bean plant.
BIOLOGICAL AGENT WEAPONIZATION
Among the paths of exposure by biological agents, the most dangerous and important is aerosol inhalation. Aerosols are dispersed by two basic means: point or line source dissemination. Unlike chemical agents, biological agents sprayed in a line dispersal (low flying aircraft, speedboat along the coast), normally will not leave hazardous residue. But aerosols generated by point-source supply (stationary aerosol generator, bomblets) are more likely to contaminate the ground, depending on the agent used, only in the immediate area of the disperser.
BIOLOGICAL AGENTS
Although there are many thousands of bacteria, viruses and toxins, the majority would not make viable weapons. They are either too dangerous to handle, too fragile for disbursement, or too unpredictable in their effects.
The following are the ten most likely Biological Warfare Agents that we would be up against.
ANTHRAX _ a bacterial agent that has been a disease of workers with cattle, sheep and goats. The vaccine for the Cutaneous Anthrax has been found also to be effective against the Inhalation Anthrax. Cutaneous Anthrax is contracted through the skin from an infected animal, and has a fatality rate of 5 to 20%. Inhalation Anthrax is almost always fatal with in 3 to 5 days after exposure. Antibiotics are effective only if it is detected early. If not there is no effective treatment.
Symptoms are gradual and non-specific, fever, malaise and fatigue, sometimes coughing and chest discomfort. An infective dose requires 8000-50,000 spores. Anthrax cannot be spread by an infected individual to another person. The anthrax vaccine consists of 6 doses over an 18-month period with the first dose to be given at least four weeks prior to exposure.
BRUCELLOSIS _ a bacterial agent that has a high transfer capability. The infective dose is 1,300 organisms. The incubation period is from 1-21 days. This is a low lethality agent that is treated with antimicrobial therapy. There is no known vaccine.
PLAGUE _ is a bacteria normally transmitted to man from rats through the bites of infected fleas. It can also be aerosolized and transmitted through the respiratory tract. The infective dose would from 100 to 20,000 organisms. Untreated pneumonic plague has a mortality rate of 90 to 100%. The incubation period is 2-3 days and the early symptoms are high fever, chills, headache, spitting up blood and shortness of breath. There is a vaccine available and the symptoms are treated with antibiotics.
Q FEVER _ A rickettsiae that is found in nature and can be transmitted to man, cows, sheep and goats by the inhalation of dust from infected animals. The infective dose is 10 or less organisms, and the incubation period is 2 to 10 days with flu like symptoms. Mortality is low (under 1%). A vaccine is under development and antibiotics are used for treatment.
TULAREMIA _ a bacteria which is used as an aerosol. It has a high infectivity, 10 to 50 organisms, with a 2-10 day incubation period. The lethality is moderate if untreated. Symptoms-Gastrointestinal, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Pneumonic, fever, headache, malaise, cough. Treatment by antibiotics is effective. There is an experimental vaccine.
SMALL POX _ is a virus, in two strains, variola major and the milder type variola minor. The infective dose is from 10 to 100 particles with an incubation period of 7 to 10 days.
Symptoms include malaise, fever, rigors, vomiting, headache and backache. Some victims will exhibit a rash. Untreated a 30% mortality can be reached. Treatment is Immune Globulin Injections. There is a vaccine available.
VIRAL ENCEPHALITIS _ a virus with an incubation period of 1 to 5 days. The infective dose is 10 to 100 particles. The onset of symptoms is extremely sudden with general malaise, spiking fever, rigor, severe headache, nausea, vomiting, cough, sore throat and diarrhea. Case fatalities are under 1%. The natural causes are from mosquito bites. Antibiotics are not effective. There is an experimental vaccine.
VIRAL HEMORRHAGIC FEVER _ a viral disease including Ebola, Marburg, Lassa, Riff Valley and Dengue Fever. The natural cause is by infected ticks. The infective dose is 1-10 particles with an incubation period of 4 to 21 days. The symptoms are easy bleeding, hypotension, flushing of the face, chest and edema. Other symptoms include malaise, headache, vomiting and diarrhea. The mortality from this family of viruses is up to 90%.
There are vaccines for some but not all hemorrhagic fevers.
BOTULISM TOXIN _ is produced by the bacteria, Clostridum Botulinum. Since these bacteria cannot grow in oxygen, natural exposures to this toxin is by improperly preserved canned food. Botulinum toxin is among the most potent of the biological toxins known. It enters the body through the digestive system. Weaponized, it would be inhaled. Initial symptoms include weakness, malaise, dizziness and nausea. Other symptoms are difficulty swallowing and speaking, blurred vision. Onset of symptoms begin 24 to 72 hours after contact and symptoms can last from 6 to 8 days. There is an antitoxin available, but it is not effective after the onset of severe symptoms.
STAPH ENTEROTOXIN B _ Staphylococcus Aureous (a bacteria) produces Staphylcoccal Enterotoxin Type B (SEB). This toxin is a rapid acting toxin whose effects last longer than those of many chemical agents. SEB causes food poisoning that results from ingestion of the toxin rather than the bacteria. Symptoms usually occur 1 to 6 hours after ingestion. Symptoms appear in a few minutes after exposure to large doses by aerosol. Inhaled SEB can cause vomiting and diarrhea if some of the toxin is swallowed. The major symptoms are fever, cough, chills which will last 1 to 2 weeks.
KNOWN UNCLASSIFIED BIOTERRORISM INCIDENTS
1950s The MAU MAUs of Kenya used plant toxins to kill livestock.
Nov 1970 The Weathermen attempted to acquire biological agents to contaminate water systems.
Jan 1972 RISE intended to contaminate Chicago's water system with Typhoid.
Jan 1974 SLA (Symbionese Liberation Army) showed interest in biological warfare.
Jun 1976 B.A. Fox threatened to mail tick carrying botulinum toxin.
Nov 1980 Red Army Faction was reported trying to manufacture botulinum toxin.
OCT 1981 Dark Harvest, spread dirt contaminated with anthrax.
Aug/Sep 1984 Rajneeshee contaminated salad bars with samonella, infecting 751 people, to affect the outcome of local elections in Oregon.
Mid 1980 Tamils of Sri Lanka threatened to spread pathogens, to infect humans and crops.
Apr 1990/
Mar 1995 Aum Shinrikyo Sect of Japan, unsuccessfully tried to use botulinum toxin and anthrax, causing no casualties.
May 1992 Minnesota Patriots Council, plotted to assassinate law enforcement officials using ricin toxin.
Feb 1997 James Dalton Bell advocated assassination of government officials with toxins.
Apr 1997 Counter Holocaust Lobbyists of Zion sent packages falsely claiming they contained anthrax.
A terrorist group would be attracted to the use of BW agents because of the mass killing potential.
The most likely tactic would be to release BW agents into the air as an aerosol. Since BW agents
are invisible, odorless and tasteless, on one would know that an attack was underway.
CURRENT BIOLOGICAL DEFENSE CAPABILITIES
Accurate intelligence is a requirement to development of an effective defense.
Today the first indicator of a biological attack on unprotected individuals will be those that start feeling ill or exhibits symptoms.
Over the last 20 years, technology has been developed for rapid detection and identification of biological agents. Unfortunately, none of these have turned into an on-site, real-time detector. Some of the newest "hand held" detection devises are based on immunoassay. These have been developed by commercial clinical companies. Some are also developing DNA/RNA amplification "gene chips" and biosensors to produce on-site detection.
The best current mobile system is the US Army Biological Integrated Detection System (BIDS). There are 38 systems in the field. BIDS is vehicle mounted, must be stationary to function and
Takes 45 minutes from when it is in position until it can detect biological aerosolized agents. It can only identify 4 agents and does not provide a standoff detection capability.
Fixed site equipment is the Advanced Technology Concept Demonstration (ACTD) called Partial Shield. There are two systems that were deployed in 1998, Camp Doha, Kuwait, and Osan Air Base, Korea. This unit uses 24 networked sensors, data fusion and smart algorithms to provide a warning when the particle concentrations exceed a preset number. The particles are identified in 15 minutes.
The Joint Program Office for Biological Defense (JPO-BD) and Midwest Research Institute (MRI) have co-developed a portable biological aerosol sampler. There are two units in testing. One was used in the interior buildings in Europe during the 50th anniversary of NATO celebrations.
Both military and civilian research agencies are continuing to develop bio detectors that are field friendly and easily used.
PERSONAL PROTECTION
The standard battledress overgarment, protective gloves and overboots along with the gas mask (M17-24-40-42) systems provide adequate protection.
MEDICAL DEFENSE
Vaccination and personal hygiene are the best defense against biological weapons. For the civilian population, other than the standard vaccinations and overseas travel vaccinations there are no programs in place that will protect against the use of biological weapons.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Since we have very few detection systems, the entire country is in a very dangerous situation. The National Defense University states that germ weapons could be the weapon of choice, very small quantities can kill very large numbers of people, advanced delivery systems are not required, biological weapons can be readily acquired, BW programs are relatively easy to conceal. The National Defense University's statement refers to attacks on the US by other countries.
The biological warfare threat is indeed serious and the potential for devastating casualties is high.
The terrorist threat is also real, but like the use of chemical agents, the terrorists need to acquire the high grade or strength agents. The home grown, construction of biological agents again are possible, but unlikely to be as hazardous or toxic. Again as an example, the Aum Shinriko Sect that had millions of dollars, chemists, etc. over 5 years of attempted use of toxins and anthrax deployment had no casualties.
It is my opinion that the use of Biological Weapons by other countries or terrorists is the most serious of all of the NBC threats to the US and its military and civilian population.
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PART THREE: THE NUCLEAR THREAT
This third article will cover the Nuclear Threat and the possible use by terrorists.
NUCLEAR DETONATIONS
When a nuclear explosion occurs, blast radiation and heat or thermal effects occur. The initial temperature of the fireball ranges into millions of degrees.
The three types of bursts are:
Air burst is an explosion in the air at an altitude below 30kms but at a sufficient height that the fireball does not make contact with the ground. Burns to exposed skin and eye injuries will occur over a large area. There is usually a minimal fallout hazard.
Ground burst is an explosion on or slightly above the ground, so the fireball touches the land or water. Blast, thermal radiation, and nuclear radiation will affect the area. Fallout will be a major hazard both at the point of the explosion and downwind.
Subsurface burst is a detonation beneath the surface of the land or water, cratering normally results. If the burst does not penetrate the surface, the hazard will be from ground or water shock. If the burst penetrates the surface, blast, thermal and initial radiation will be present. Local fallout will be heavy with penetration.
Nuclear weapons cause casualties and damage material through the effects of blast, thermal radiation, and nuclear (initial) radiation.
The BLAST wave causes the most destruction in a nuclear burst. The front of the wave travels rapidly away from the fireball, behaving like a moving wall of highly compressed air. Another effect is called static overpressure. This is the pressure in excess of the normal atmospheric pressure. As it moves, the blast wave exerts enough pressure to crush and collapse buildings as it travels outwards. It leaves in its wake a lessening of the air pressure that acts as a vacuum. This causes additional destructive winds that rush back toward ground zero to fill the vacuum.
THERMAL RADIATION is the first effect of a nuclear burst that can be felt or seen. It is the combination of heat and light resulting from the fireball.
HEAT: In less than a millionth of a second after detonation, great amounts of energy is released and leads to the formation of the fireball. The brightness of the fireball does not vary greatly with the yield of the weapon; the yield dictates the size and duration of the fireball. The heat radiated contributes to the damage caused by a nuclear burst. Ignition of combustibles contributes to starting fires in buildings and surrounding areas. The fires will spread rapidly among the debris produced by the blast. Also the heat can severely burn exposed personnel at great distances from ground zero.
LIGHT: the fireball produces an extremely bright light, it can cause temporary or permanent blindness.
NUCLEAR RADIATION is a form of electromagnetic energy that can cause sickness and death.
1) INITIAL NUCLEAR RADIATION is emitted within the first minute after detonation. It consists of neutrons and gamma rays. Both can travel considerable distances and produce harmful effects on humans. Gamma rays interact with the human body and causes damage to tissues and blood forming cells.
RESIDUAL NUCLEAR RADIATION continues past the first minute of detonation and consists of fallout and neutron-induced radiation. Fallout results from material being drawn from the ground into the fireball, being vaporized, combining with radioactive material, condensing into particles and falling to the earth. Neutron-induced radiation is found on the ground's surface around ground zero. The extent and intensity depends on several factors, the type of soil, height of burst, and the type and yield of the weapon.
The effect of Thermal Radiation on the body is from the effects of flash burns, which happen very quickly. These burns may be first degree, second degree, or third degree, depending on how close to the blast the person was at the time of detonation.
The effects of Nuclear Radiation on the body: When the body absorbs radiation, it damages the cells of the body. The amount of radiation a person can receive and still survive depends on many factors such as the person's weight, general state of health, personal biochemistry, and previous exposure to radiation.
RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL: material capable of giving off one or more forms of radiation.
IONIZING RADIATION: energy that when it touches or passes through material causes some form of reaction.
CLASSES OF RADIATION: Alpha particles, Beta particles and Gamma rays.
ALPHA PARTICLES are positive charged particles with a limited range and penetrating power. Normally they are stopped by unbroken skin or a piece of paper.
BETA PARTICLES have a negative charge and have a greater range and penetrating power than Alpha particles. Light layers of clothes, aluminum foil, or a book 1 to 1 ½ inch thick can stop them.
GAMMA RAYS are not particles, but are pure electromagnetic radiation, similar to X-rays but at a much higher energy level. Gamma rays have long penetrating ranges and high penetrating power. The rays can be reduced by the use of steel, concrete, earth or lead.
RADIATION UNITS are terms used to quantify amounts of radiation. The term REM (Roentgen Equivalent Man), RAD (Radiation Absorbed Dose) and cGy (centigray-Which is the term used by the US Army) are all equivalent measures.
Symptoms of Radiation poisoning may occur immediately, if the individual receives a very high dose, or the symptoms may appear within a few hours. Depending on the dose, the symptoms may disappear after a short time and not return, or they might return within a few days or weeks. If the symptoms reappear, they may be more severe that when they first appeared, and can result in death.
Symptoms include weakness, nausea, vomiting or dry heaves, diarrhea, lethargy, depression, mental disorientation, shock and coma. See chart.
HEALTH HAZARDS: risk depends on several factors, and remembering that all radiation is cumulative.
Total amount of radiation received (dose).
Dose rate of radiation received(how long person was exposed)
Specific type of radiation.
The health risks during an incident are in three areas, and involve whole body exposure, ingestion of radioactive material (inhalation, ingestion), or contamination. Events involving either an explosion or fire will increase the chance of ingestion or contamination by the spreading of radioactive material in dust or smoke.
PROTECTION
Protection against radiation is a combination of time, distance and shielding. The amount of radiation you will receive depends on the type and strength of the radiation and the time you are exposed. 100 cGys per hour with an exposure of 15 minutes would give a dosage of 25 cGys. The distance factor is Dose = source (cGys) / distance. 100 cGys / 4 feet = dose of 25 cGys.
Keeping track of the individuals exposure is critical, any dosage received is cumulative (it keeps adding up and never leaves the body). Mild radiation sickness is around a dosage of 200 cGys, and a normal lethal dose is figured at 450 cGys.
Because of the ease of protection from Alpha and Beta radiation, the main concern is from inhalation or ingestion of radioactive material in the form of dust or contaminated food or water. The M-17, 24, 25, 40 and 42 series of military masks along with any good civilian mask or respirator will protect you from inhalation risks. The NBC Overgarment also provides protection from Alpha and Beta radiation plus some limited protection against Gamma rays.
DECONTAMINATION
Wetting down an individual will cause radioactive material to adhere to the clothing. Preventing it from being aerosolized and contaminating others. Removing the contaminated clothing is the next step. Washing with soap and water and rinsing will remove any contamination from the skin or hair. The final step is to cover the individual for their protection and check them with monitoring equipment for complete decontamination.
There are civilian radiation detectors presently available. The US Army use dosimeters AN/PDR-75 (personal), IM-9E/PD (clinical), IM-93 and IM-147 (tactical). Radiac sets include the AN/PDR-77 and AN/VDR-2 (Alpha-Gamma-X ray) AN/ODR-13 (pocket carried) and the ADM-300 MFR Multi Function Radiac.
THE THREAT
The odds of someone making a nuclear devise in their garage are extremely remote. Smuggling into the US of a nuclear devise from a foreign country is again a good novel or movie plot, but not very likely.
In November 1995 a 30-pound package containing explosives and cesium, a radioactive material, was found in a Moscow, Russia Park. Chechen separatists placed the package. The devise was located and disarmed before it had exploded. If the devise had exploded, it would have been a major problem; Cesium 137 has a half live of 30 years.
Industrial sources of radioactive materials are found in gauges, X-ray machines, particle accelerators, power sources, and radioluminescent materials. They use such materials as Cobalt 60, Radium 226, Iridium 192, Plutonium 238, and Strontium 90.
Medical sources of radioactive materials are Cancer treatment centers, Nuclear medicine applications, Radio-pharmaceuticals, that use Cobalt 60, Cesium 137, Iridium192, Radium 226, Phosphorous 32, Strontium 90, Iodine 125, Iodine 131, Iodine 32, Strontium 90, and xenon 13.
The half-life is time in which half of the atoms of a radioactive substance disintegrate into another nuclear form. Some of the listed element half-life times are Sodium 24 _ 15 hours, Phosphorus 32 _ 14 days, Strontium 90 _ 28 years, Cesium 137-30 years. Using Cesium 137, it would decay by ½ in 30 years. At 45 years it would again have decayed by half. Another 7 and ½ years it would have decayed by another half, and so on. As one can see, some of this material will seem to be around forever.
Using the Moscow incident, one can see that the terrorist use of conventional explosives with radioactive materials would have an extremely long lasting effect. With the large amount of nuclear materials in use by industry and the medical field, the theft and use by terrorists of radioactive materials is very possible.
See Table 1. Biological Effects of Nuclear Radiation.
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LTC Dale W. Dahlke, XO 5th MP BDE, Ohio Military Reserve, NBC Defense School Commander, CORPS NBC Officer. For further information, contact LTC Dahlke, 1426 D Street, Lorain, Ohio, 44052-2211. Email: